Rick Schaffer1 and Chuck Schaffer2

The illustration of chelonians has a lengthy history first seen in primitive markings on cave walls. This art form has definite styles and techniques which have undergone a series of evolutionary phases as chelonians have been represented in effigies, coinage, weights and pallettes. But this presentation focuses on it as a tool for zoological illustration, particularly on images appearing on paper. Illustration is an integral element in science and has always played a vital role in the investigation and documentation of organisms. An illustration can even serve as a type specimen in the absence of a physical specimen. The earliest examples on paper found thus far date from manuscripts written and illustrated by hand. Subsequent printed works incorporated woodcuts, followed by copper and still later steel engravings. Images were originally colored individually by hand until replaced by chromolithography, the first true color printing. Early images were often exaggerated or enhanced. Most did not document scientific fact and it was clear that many of the artists had never seen the chelonians pictured. But the interpretation of organisms was as important as accuracy of images as seen in early examples from the New World. Many of the early works sought appeal with symmetrical unrealistic poses. Religious and social pressure also dictated particular stylized designs and “moral” models. But often, content was determined by the artist’s concept of audience interest, leading to unrealistic embellishment. Accuracy was not an issue until the 1800s when the scientific method’s influence merged with artistic styles and printing technology improved. Vivid realism and beautiful hand coloring were added, greatly improving the presentations. Although “borrowing” images likely existed as long as illustration, this time was known for the wide plagiarization. Larger editions coupled with wider distribution of books and works written for public appeal in popular natural histories made this much more apparent. But it was not simply a matter of plagiarism, as artists copied organisms they had never seen, each appearance yielding loss of detail. The process continues today in both popular and scholarly venues.
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